Design of 4 Line Private Exchange Box

Design of 4 Line Private Exchange Box INTRODUCTION 1.0 INTRODUCTION Private branch exchange system (PBXs) operates as a connection within private organizations usually a business. Because they incorporate telephones, the general term extension is used to refer to any end point on the branch. The PBX handles calls between these extensions. The primary advantage of PBXs was cost savings on internal phone calls: handling the circuit switching locally reduced charges for local phone services. The private branch exchange (PBX) provides internal station-to-station communications for a well-defined set of users. Three distinct generations of private branch exchanges have appeared. In the first generation (1900-1930), a human operator manually set up calls. Second-generation private branch exchanges (mid-1930s to mid-1970s) used mechanical relays to establish the call path. The third generation of private branch exchanges is the stored-program microprocessor-controlled system. Introduced in the mid-1970s, these systems use computer instructions to perform th e call set-up and tear-down. The third-generation private branch exchange is physically much smaller than electromechanical models, uses less power, and generates less heat.(Brooks, 1999) In this project, the design of a 4 line telephone systems with full signaling and switching functions similar to those of the central office systems was embarked upon. Dial tone, busy tone, and ring tone are provided during call process. Switching employs integrated circuit (IC) matrix switches on four buses. Thus, this system is expandable to 8 lines (4 pairs) if more hardware is added. This system is switching on the Dual Tone Multi Frequency (DTMF) dialing signal. 1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM The major problems this project intends to deal with are: Cut down cost of internal calls made within a company. Eliminate the need for a central telephone company to help you monitor your internal calls. Eliminate Stress of notification of telephone company each time you need a new extension and thereby reducing cost. Ensure security of your internal calls which otherwise can be tapped by company operating it. Eliminate the need for a manual switchboard and subsequently an operator to connect the calls. Reduce man-hours lost through staff walking about in an office in order to pass information to each other. 1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: The main aim of this project is to design and implement a 4 line private exchange box that is able to create connection between four different telephone lines internally without having to connect to an external or trunk line. The objectives include: Establishing connections between the telephone sets of any two users. (e.g. mapping a dialed number to a physical phone) Maintaining such connections as long as the users require them. (i.e. channeling voice signals between the users) Creating an easy means of communication in an office without getting to spend money for their internal calls. To switch between telephone users thereby creating connections. To make sure the connection remains in place as long as it last, by keeping its resources. To properly end the connection when a user hangs up. 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY The ability or concept of providing an easy and less expensive way of communication within a small office or organization without having to pay for your internal calls or having limits to the rate or length of calls within the office. Also it is not necessary to go from office to office when something is needed, information is to be passed; a call to a colleague saves stress of walking about. 1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY The Private Exchange System in this project is limited to a four lines which means that internal calls can be made from only four nodes. As such, it is only suitable for very small organization. 1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The review of existing and related works to source appropriate information on how to go about the implementation of the project will be carried out. Information shall be gathered from text books, magazines, journals, and World Wide Web to provide answers in relation to the study. Based on the review, the design and implementation of a four line private exchange box system shall be carried out. 1.6 LIMITATIONS OF STUDY There are several factors that could contribute to the group not delving deeper into this project which could have resulted in a more comprehensive work. Constraints are unavoidable in any system, be it a natural system or a computer system. Due to the extensiveness of this project topic, limitations were encountered some of which include: Time constraint. Financial constraints. Inadequate facilities to work with. 1.7 ORGANIZATION OF WORK In chapter one, the research topic is introduced, which is followed by the statement of problem after which the aims and objectives of the study are stated, significance of study, scope of study and research methodology are all identified. The second chapter gives us a view of the related works which have been done and how they are related to our work. The third chapter is about our design methodology and this emphasizes on how the whole private exchange system works and its components. The quality of the system is tested and documented in chapter four. Also in chapter four, an in-depth manual of the system functions and contents is given. A summary of all chapters, a conclusion is outlined in chapter five. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 HISTORY OF PRIVATE EXCHANGE BOX In the field of telecommunications, a telephone exchange or telephone switch is a system of electronic components that connects telephone calls. A central office is the physical building used to house inside plant equipment including telephone switches, which make phone calls work in the sense of making connections and relaying the speech information. Early telephone exchanges are a suitable example of circuit switching; the subscriber would ask the operator to connect to another subscriber, whether on the same exchange or via an inter-exchange link and another operator. In any case, the end result was a physical electrical connection between the two subscribers telephones for the duration of the call. The copper wire used for the connection could not be used to carry other calls at the same time, even if the subscribers were in fact not talking and the line was silent. The first telephone exchange opened in New Haven, Connecticut in 1878. The switchboard was built from carriage bolts, handles from tea pot lids and bustle wire and could handle two simultaneous conversations. Later exchanges consisted of one to several hundred plug boards staffed by telephone operators. Each operator sat in front of a vertical panel containing banks of  ¼-inch tip-ring-sleeve (3-conductor) jacks, each of which was the local termination of a subscribers telephone line. In front of the jack panel lay a horizontal panel containing two rows of patch cords, each pair connected to a cord circuit. When a calling party lifted the receiver, a signal lamp near the jack would light. The operator would plug one of the cords (the answering cord) into the subscribers jack and switch her headset into the circuit to ask, number please? Depending upon the answer, the operator might plug the other cord of the pair (the ringing cord) into the called partys local jack and start the ri nging cycle, or plug into a trunk circuit to start what might be a long distance call handled by subsequent operators in another bank of boards or in another building miles away. 2.1 PBX SYSTEM COMPONENTS PBX is a telephone exchange serving a single organization and having no means for connecting to a public telephone system it serves a user company which wants to have its own communication branch to save some money on internal calls. This is done by having the exchanging or switching of circuits done locally, inside the company. There are some important components which play a major role in the implementation of an effective PBX system. Some of the Component The PBXs internal switching network. Central processor unit (CPU) or computer inside the system, including memory. Logic cards, switching and control cards, power cards and related devices that facilitate PBX operation. Stations or telephone sets, sometimes called lines. Outside Telco trunks that deliver signals to (and carry them from) the PBX. Console or switchboard allows the operator to control incoming calls. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) consisting of sensors, power switches and batteries. Interconnecting wiring. Cabinets, closets, vaults and other housings. 2.2 PRIVATE BRANCH EXCHANGE (PBX) There are essentially three different types of PBXs that could be deployed within an organization infrastructure. It is necessary to be certain of type in use, so as to be able to identify the essential numbers. There are currently three different PBX classes: Centrex; Direct Inward Dialing (DID)/Direct Outward Dialing (DOD) and Megalink. 2.2.1 CENTREX Centrex is the easiest of the PBX types. This PBX, unlike other types is installed within the telephone companys Central Office (CO) and does not require dialing an extension code (normally 4 numeric characters) after having dialed the 7 to 10 digit number to connect a call to an individual. In a simplistic manner, it could be considered similar to the telephone used at home. It has an area code (NPA), an Exchange (NXX) and a Unique Number, (0000 to 9999) and does not require the dialling of another number after it in order to place a call. These numbers may be entered through a PAD. 2.2.2 Direct Inward Dialing(DID)/ Direct Outward Dialing (DOD) Unlike a Centrex, these types of PBXs is not installed within the telephone companys Central Office. Secondly, if a cut of the telephone wire occurs outside the building, individuals are still able to dial within it to talk to colleagues by simply dialing their extension number (normally a number between 0000 to 9999) lastly; this PBX is controlled via a computer interface at a control console. Since the PBX requires constant power to function, it may be necessary to hook it with generating plant, in the absence of power from electricity company. Direct Inward Dialing (DID) and Direct Outward Dialing (DOD) are simply features of an Automated PBX which require that you dial the companys general telephone number followed by the entry of the individuals extension number when prompted to do so. DIDs allow you direct dialing (seven digits) to locate an individual within an organizations PBX. It is a trunk phone number that must be entered into the PAD program and flagged as a PBX to ensure that the outgoing line(s) get priority. PBXs may be privately owned or telecommunication company owned. If PBX is programmable it is possible to assign specific trunk lines to specific numbers. These trunk line numbers may then be entered on PAD thus providing dial tone protection. 2.2.3 MEGALINKS The major difference between this and a Centrex PBX is that the exiting trunk lines from a building to the telephone company central office are comprised of fibre optic cables and not through twisted pair wiring. Another difference is that unlike a Centrex that is identified by its ten digit telephone number (NPA, NXX, and Unique), Megalinks are identified by a circuit ID number. This number may contain characters and may even resemble a telephone number, however, PAD does not allow for the entry of the circuit switch identifier. The reason is quite simple, fibre optic cabling circuits can handle far more traffic than twisted pair PBXs. 2.3 INTERFACE STANDARDS Interfaces for connecting extensions to a PBX include: POTS (Plain Old Telephone System) the common two-wire interface used in most homes. This is cheap and effective, and allows almost any standard phone to be used as an extension. Proprietary the manufacturer has defined a protocol. One can only connect the manufacturers sets to their PBX, but the benefit is more visible information displayed and/or specific function buttons. DECT a standard for connecting cordless phones. Internet Protocol For example, H.323 and SIP. Interfaces for connecting PBXs to each other include: Proprietary protocols if equipment from several manufacturers is on site, the use of a standard protocol is required. QSIG for connecting PBXs to each other, usually runs over T1 (T-carrier) or E1 (E-carrier) physical circuits. DPNSS for connecting PBXs to trunk lines. Standardised by British Telecom, this usually runs over E1 (E-carrier) physical circuits. Internet Protocol H.323, SIP and IAX protocols are IP based solutions which can handle voice and multimedia (e.g. video) calls. Interfaces for connecting PBXs to trunk lines include: Standard POTS (Plain Old Telephone System) lines the common two-wire interface used in most domestic homes. This is adequate only for smaller systems, and can suffer from not being able to detect incoming calls when trying to make an outbound call. ISDN the most common digital standard for fixed telephony devices. This can be supplied in either Basic (2 circuit capacity) or Primary (24 or 30 circuit capacity) versions. Most medium to large companies would use Primary ISDN circuits carried on T1 or E1 physical connections. RBS (Robbed bit signaling) delivers 24 digital circuits over a four-wire (T1) interface. Internet Protocol H.323, SIP, MGCP, and Inter-Asterisk eXchange protocols operate over IP and are supported by some network providers. Interfaces for collecting data from the PBX: Serial interface historically used to print every call record to a serial printer. Now an application connects via serial cable to this port. Network Port (Listen mode) where an external application connects to the TCP or UDP port. The PBX then starts streaming information down to the application. Network Port (Server mode) The PBX connects to another application or buffer. File The PBX generates a file containing the call records from the PBX. The call records from the PBX are called SMDR, CDR, or CIL.   (Micheal, 1999) 2.4 TELEPHONE Telephone is one of the most amazing devices ever created.   Although most people take it completely for granted, the telephone is one of the most amazing devices ever created. To talk to someone, just pick up the phone and dial a few digits; connection will be established with the person and a two-way conversation can take place. It is an instrument designed for simultaneous transmission and reception of the human voice. It works by converting the sound waves of the human voice to pulses of electrical current, transmitting the current, and then retranslating the current back to sound. The U.S. patent granted to Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 for developing a device to transmit speech sounds over electric wires is often called the most valuable ever issued. Within 20 years, the telephone acquired a form that has remained fundamentally unchanged for more than a century. The advent of the transistor (1947) led to lightweight, compact circuitry . Advances in electronics have allowed th e introduction of a number of smart features such as automatic redialing, caller identification, call waiting, and call forwarding. The figure 2.1 shows the major components that makes up a telephone set. 2.5 HOW TELEPHONE WORKS When a person speaks into a telephone, the sound waves created by his voice enter the mouthpiece. An electric current carries the sound to the telephone of the person he is talking to. A telephone has two main parts: (1) the transmitter and (2) the receiver.The Transmitter of a telephone serves as a sensitive electric ear. It lies behind the mouthpiece of the phone. Like the human ear, the transmitter has 14 eardrum. The eardrum of the telephone is a thin, round metal disk called a diaphragm. When a person talks into the telephone, the sound waves strike the diaphragm and make it vibrate. The diaphragm vibrates at various speeds, depending on the variations in air pressure caused by the varying tones of the speakers voice.   Behind the diaphragm lies a small cup filled with tiny grains of carbon. The diaphragm presses against these carbon grains. Low voltage electric current travels through the grains. This current comes from batteries at the telephone company. The pressure on the carbon grains varies as sound waves make the diaphragm vibrate. A loud sound causes the sound waves to push hard on the diaphragm. In turn, the diaphragm presses the grains tightly together. This action makes it easier for the electric current to travel through, and a large amount of electricity flows through the grains. When the sound is soft, the sound waves push lightly on the diaphragm. In turn, the diaphragm puts only a light pressure on the carbon grains. The grains are pressed together loosely. This makes it harder for the electric current to pass through them, and less current flows through the grains. Thus, the pattern of the sound waves determines the pressure on the diaphragm. This pressure, in turn, regulates the pressure on the carbon grains. The crowded or loose grains cause the electric current to become stronger or weaker. The current copies the pattern of the sound waves and travels over a telephone wire to the receiver of another telephone. The Receiver serves as an electric mouth. Like a human voice, it has vocal cords. The vocal cords of the receiver are a diaphragm. Two magnets located at the edge of the diaphragm cause it to vibrate. One of the magnets is a permanent magnet that constantly holds the diaphragm close to it. The other magnet is an electromagnet. It consists of a piece of iron with a coil of wire wound around it. When an electric current passes through the coil, the iron core becomes magnetized. The diaphragm is pulled toward the iron core and away from the permanent magnet. The pull of the electromagnet varies between strong and weak, depending on the variations in the current. Thus, the electromagnet controls the vibrations of the diaphragm in the receiver.The electric current passing through the electromagnet becomes stronger or weaker according to the loud or soft sounds. This action causes the diaphragm to vibrate according to the speakers speech pattern. As the diaphragm moves in and out, it pulls and pushes the air in front of it. The pressure on the air sets up sound waves that are the same as the ones sent into the transmitter. The sound waves strike the ear of the listener and he hears the words of the speaker. (www.howstuffworks.com) 2.6 THE RINGER Simply speaking this is a device that alerts you to an incoming call. It may be a bell, light, or warbling tone.  Ã‚   The ringing signal is in an AC wave form.   Although the common frequency used can be any frequency between 15 and 68 Hz.   Most of the world uses frequencies   between   20 and 40 Hz.  Ã‚   The voltage at the subscribers end depends upon loop length and number   of   ringers attached to the line; it could be between 40 and 150 Volts. The ringing cadence (the timing of ringing to pause), varies from company to company.   In the United States the cadence is normally 2 seconds of ringing to 4 seconds of pause. An unanswered phone in the United States will keep ringing until the caller hangs up.   But in some countries, the ringing will time out if the call is not answered. The   most   common   ringing   device is   the   gong   ringer; a solenoid   coil   with a clapper that strikes either a single or double bell. A gong ringer is the loudest signaling device that is solely phone-line powered. Modern telephones tend to use warbling ringers, which are usually ICs powered by the rectified ringing signal.   The audio transducer is a small   loudspeaker via a transformer. Ringers are isolated from the DC of the phone line by a capacitor. Gong ringers in the United States use a 0.47 uF capacitor.   Warbling ringers in the United States generally use a 1.0 uF capacitor.   Telephone companies in other   parts   of   the world   use   capacitors   between   0.2   and   2.0   uF.  Ã‚   The  Ã‚   paper capacitors of the past have been replaced almost exclusively with capacitors made of Mylar film.   Their voltage rating is always 50 Volts.   The capacitor and ringer coil, or Zeners in a warbling ringer, constitute a resonant circuit. When phone is hung up (on hook) the ringer is across the line; and it has merely silenced the transducer, not removed the circuit from the line. When the telephone company uses the ringer to test the line, it   sends   a   low-voltage, low frequency   signal   down   the   line (usually   2 Volts at 10 Hz) to test for continuity. The company compares result with the expected signals of the line.   This is how it can tell whether an added equipment is on the line. If your telephone has had its ringer disconnected, the telephone company cannot detect its presen ce on the line. Because there is only a certain amount of current available to   drive ringers, if ringers are added to phone lines indiscriminately, a point will be reached at which either all ringers will cease to ring, some will cease to ring, or some ringers will ring   weakly. A normal ringer is defined as   a   standard gong   ringer   as   supplied   in   a   phone   company   standard   desk telephone; Value given to this ringer   is   Ringer   Equivalence Number   (REN)   1. It can be as high as 3.2, which means that device consumes the equivalent   power   of   3.2 standard ringers, or 0.0, which means it consumes no current when subjected   to   a   ringing   signal.   If   there is a problem with ringing, it could be that the REN is greater than 5, disconnecting ringers until REN is at 5 or below will usually solve the problem. Other countries have various ways of expressing   REN,   and some   systems   will handle no more th an three of   their   standard ringers.   But whatever the system, if an extra equipment was added and the   phones   stop ringing, or the phone answering   machine   wont pick   up   calls,   the solution is disconnect   ringers   until   the problem   is resolved. Warbling ringers tend to draw less current than   gong   ringers, so changing from gong   ringers   to   warbling ringers may help spread the sound better. Frequency response is the second criterion by which a ringer is described. Because a ringer is supposed to respond to AC waveforms,   it will tend to respond to transients (such as switching transients) when the phone is hung up, or when the rotary dial is used on   an extension phone.   This is called bell tap in the United States; in other   countries,   its often called   bell   tinkle.  Ã‚   While European and   Asian phones tend to bell tap, or   tinkle,   United States ringers that bell tap are considered defective. The bell tap   is   designed out of gong ringers and fine   tuned   with   bias springs.  Ã‚   Warbling   ringers   for use in the   United   States   are designed   not   to respond to short transients;   this   is   usually accomplished   by   rectifying the AC and filtering   it   before   it powers the IC,   then not switching on the output stage unless the voltage lasts long enough to charge a second capacitor.(Roberts, 2006) 2.7 HOOK SWITCH This is a lever that is depressed when the handset is resting in its cradle. It is a two-wire to four-wire converter that provides conversion between the four-wire handset and the two-wire local loop. There are two stages, which are off   hook and on hook Off hook: The state of a telephone line that allows dialing and transmission but prohibits incoming calls from being answered. The phone is off-hook when the handset is removed from the base unit of a stationary phone or press Talk on a portable phone. The term stems from the days when the handset was lifted off an actual hook. When the handset was removed, a spring caused contacts to press together, closing the circuit from the telephone to the switchboard. On hook: The condition that exists when a telephone or other user instrument is not in use, i.e., when idle waiting for a call. Note: on-hook originally referred to the storage of an idle telephone reciever, i.e., separate earpiec, on a swithch hook. The weigth of the recieved depresses the sping leaded switch hook thereby disconnecting the idle instrument (except its bell) from the telephone line.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (Roberts, 2006) 2.8 THE DIAL There are two types of dials in use around the world. The most common one is called pulse, loop disconnect, or rotary; the oldest form of dialing, its been in use since the 1920s. The other dialing   method,   is called Touch-tone, Dual Tone Multi-Frequency   (DTMF) Pulse dialing   is traditionally accomplished with   a   rotary dial,   which is a speed governed wheel with a cam that opens   and closes a switch in series with the phone and the line.   It works by   actually   disconnecting   or hanging   up   the   telephone   at specific intervals.   The United States standard is one disconnect per  Ã‚   digit,  Ã‚   so if a   1, is dailled, the telephone   is disconnected once. To dial a seven means that it will be   disconnected seven times; and dialling a zero means that it will hang up ten times. Some countries invert the system so 1 causes ten disconnects   and 0,   one disconnect.   Some add a digit so that dialing a 5 would cause six disconnects and 0, eleven disconnects.   There are even some systems in which dialing 0 results in one   disconnect,   and all   other digits are plus one, making a 5 cause six   disconnects and 9, ten disconnects. Although most exchanges are quite happy with rates of 6   to 15   Pulses Per Second (PPS), the phone company accepted   standard is   8   to   10 PPS.   Some modern digital exchanges, free   of   the mechanical   inertia problems of older systems, will accept a   PPS rate as high as 20. Besides   the PPS rate, the dialing pulses have a   make/break ratio,   usually   described as a percentage, but   sometimes   as   a straight   ratio.   The North American standard is 60/40   percent; most of Europe accepts a standard of 63/37 percent.   This is the pulse measured at the telephone, not at the exchange, where   its somewhat   different, having traveled through the phone line   with its   distributed   resistance, capacitance,   and   inductance.  Ã‚   In practice, the   make/break   ratio does not   seem   to   affect   the performance of the dial when attached to a normal loop.   However,each pulse is a switch connect and disconnect across   a complex   impedance, so the switching transient often reaches   300 Volts. Usually, a safe practice is not to have fingers   across   the   line   when dialing. Most pulse dialing phones produced today use a CMOS IC and a keyboard.   Instead of pushing finger round in circles, then removing finger and waiting for the dial to return   before dialing the next digit, the button can be punched as fast as desired.   The IC stores the number and pulses out the number at the correct rate with the correct make/break ratio and the switching is done with a high-voltage switching transistor.   Because the IC has already stored the dialed number in order to pulse it out at the   correct rate,   its a simple matter for telephone designers to   keep   the memory alive   and allow the telephone to   store,   recall,   and redial the Last Number Dialed (LND).   This feature enables easy redial by picking up the handset and pushing just one button. Touch tone is the most modern form of dialing. It is   fast   and less   prone to error than pulse dialing.   Compared to pulse, its major advantage is that its audio band signals can   travel   down phone   lines further than pulse, which can travel only as far   as the   local   exchange. Touch-tone can therefore   send   signals around   the   world via the telephone lines, and can   be   used   to control phone answering machines and computers.   Bell   Labs developed DTMF in order to have a dialing   system that   could travel across microwave links and work   rapidly   with computer   controlled exchanges.   Each transmitted digit consists of two separate audio tones that are mixed together. The four   vertical columns on the keypad are known as   the   high group and the four horizontal rows as the low group; the digit   8 is   composed   of 1336 Hz and 852 Hz.   The level of each   tone   is within   3   dB   of the other.   A complete touch-tone pad has 16 digits, as opposed to ten on a pulse dial.   Besides the numerals 0 to 9, a DTMF   dial has *, #, A, B, C, and D.   Although the letters are not normally found   on consumer telephones, the IC in the phone is capable   of generating them. The   * sign is usually called star or asterisk.  Ã‚   The # sign,   often referred to as the pound sign. is actually   called an   octothorpe. Although many phone users have never used   these digits      they are not, after all, ordinarily   used in   dialing phone   numbers. They   are used   for   control   purposes,   phone answering machines, bringing up remote bases, electronic banking, and repeater control.   The one use of the octothorpe that may be familiar occurs in dialing international calls from phones.   After dialing the complete number,   dialing   the octothorpe   lets the exchange know youve finished   dialing.  Ã‚   It can now begin routing your call; without the octothorpe, it would wait and time out before switching your call. Standard DTMF dials will produce a tone as long as a key   is depressed.  Ã‚   No matter   how long you press,   the   tone   will   be decoded as the appropriate digit.   The shortest duration in which a digit can be sent and decoded is about 100 milliseconds   (ms).   Its pretty   difficult   to dial by hand at   such   a   speed,   but automatic dialers can do it.   A twelve-digit long distance number can be   dialed by an automatic dialer in a little   more   than   a second about as long as it takes a pulse dial to send a   single 0 digit.(Roberts,2006) 2.9 MODULAR CONNECTORS Modular connector is the name given to a family of electrical connectors that were originally used in telephone wiring. Even though they are still used for that purpose they are used for a variety of other things as well. A modular connectors advantage over many other kinds include; small size and ease of plugging and unplugging. Many uses that originally used a bulkier connector have migrated to modular connectors. Probably the most well known applications of modular connectors is for telephone jacks and for ethernet jacks, which are nearly always modular connectors. Figure 2.2 shows types of connectors commonly used. Modular connectors were first used in the registered jack system, so registered Jack specifications describe them precisely. These are the specifications to which all practical modular connectors are built. Modular connectors come in four sizes: 4-, 6-, 8-, and 10-position. A position is a place that can hold a conductor (pin). The positions need not all be used; a connector can have any even number of conductors. Unused positions are usually the outermost positions. The connectors are designed so that a plug can fit into any jack that has at least the number of positions as the plug. Where the jack has more positions than the plug, the outermost positions are unused. However, plugs from different manufacturers may not have this compatibility, and some manufacturers of eight position j

Spanish Language and Latin America

1 International Baccalaureate History of the Americas HL Required Summer Reading Study Guide Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of Latin America By John Charles Chasteen Foreign Affairs November/December 2000 states: Born in Blood and Fire is a briskly written yet sophisticated introduction to Latin America that will be greatly welcomed by non-specialists and experts alike. Chasteen paints on a very broad canvas, but he succeeds in capturing with enviable conciseness the major ingredients of Latin America's uniqueness and complexity.Especially welcome is his graceful integration of Brazil into the overall picture, which general histories of Latin America often lack. He first takes the reader from the European conquest through the colonial consolidation by Spain and Portugal before looking at the role of indigenous communities in the new order imposed by the Europeans and African slavery's social and cultural consequences. He then follows with the independence movements and the uneven attempts at nation-building in the nineteenth century; race, ethnicity, religious and liberal ideologies, and the roles of key individuals are also covered.Chasteen concludes with the recent return to economic liberalism, this time in the context of open elections, continuing poverty, and social exclusion of large segments of the population. A stellar performance! Summer Reading Directions: The answers to these questions should be well thought out, typed, 12 point font, single spaced, New Times Roman. The completed review sheet is a summer long process that is not designed and should not be attempted at the last minute. This assignment will be due on the first full school day of the 2011 – 2012 academic school year.These questions will prepare you for the first 2 day examination made up of 96 multiple choice questions and 57 matching terms. This is the first grade of the course and will set the study tempo for the remainder of the school year. 2 Study Guide/ Discussio n Questions John Charles Chasteen’s Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of Latin America. Chapter 1 – First Stop, the Present 1. 2. 3. 4. According to Chasteen, what is the unifying theme or unifying conflict that characterizes Latin American history? Is this a good choice? What might be some strengths or weaknesses of this focus?Why do Cuba and Brazil have such high populations of African Americans? Define â€Å"liberalism† as Chasteen uses the term: What are the different attitudes toward Latin Americans that have been common in the U. S. during the twentieth century? Chapter 2 – Encounter (1492-1600) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. What were some of the ways the historical and cultural context of the Iberian peninsula shaped the attitudes and practices of Europeans who first sailed to the Americas? Compare the Portuguese colonization of Brazil with the Spanish Colonization of what would become Mexico and Peru.Important similarities and differences? What larger significance does Chasteen see in the name change from â€Å"Island of the True Cross† to â€Å"Brazil†? What three areas of Africa provided the majority of Black slaves for the Americas? Members of which European country became the most active slave traders? From Chasteen’s perspective, what were the key factors that enabled vastly outnumbered Spanish forces to conquer the Aztec and Inca empires? In what specific ways do Las Casas’s life and values stand in contrast to those of the majority of Spaniards who came to the Americas?Briefly define or identify the following terms: Encomienda Tupi Pedro Alvarez Cabral Moors Francisco Pizarro Malinche (Marina) Salvador (Bahia) Chapter 3 – Colonial Crucible (1600-1810) 1. 2. 3. 4. In what ways did economic realities contribute to the prosperity and influence of colonial Spanish America in comparison to colonial Brazil? Name the four viceroyalties and their capitals that came to exist in Spanish America: W hat does Chasteen mean on p. 77 when he says that â€Å"transculturation and hegemony often went together† in Latin America?Do you think he’s right? Name four areas that Chasteen considers peripheral areas or â€Å"backwaters† of colonial Latin America: 3 5. Compare attitudes toward race in Latin America as described in this chapter with attitudes in the U. S. as you understand them. What significant similarities or differences do you see? Briefly define or identify the following terms: Sor Juana de la Cruz â€Å"honor† in Latin America Gracias al sacar Quilombos and Palenques Potosi Zumbi Rebellion of Gonzalo Pizarro Tupac Amaru II Engenho AleijadinhoChapter 4 – Independence (1810-1825) 1. 2. 3. 4. In what ways did events in Europe affect the movements for independence in Latin America? According to Chasteen, which independence movements in Spanish America were actually popular revolutions? Which were primarily â€Å"revolutions from above† ? How did the Brazilian independence movement compare with those in Spanish America? What impact did the independence movements have on patterns of colonialism in Spanish America?Briefly define or identify the following terms: Creoles Jose Maria Morelos Llaneros Simon Bolivar Jose Antonio Paez Peninsulars Vicente Guerrero and Augustin de Iturbide Nativism Battle of Ayacucho Miguel Hidalgo Pedro I Chapter 5 – Postcolonial Blues (1825-1850) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Why did liberalism in Latin America seem to collapse in the years following the wars of independence? What were some of the main characteristics of a caudillo? What factors helped Brazil maintain its territorial unity during the years when many regions of Spanish America were splintering into numerous new nations?In what ways does Chasteen suggest the social structure in Latin America remained the same after independence? How did it change? Who were the main â€Å"outsiders† involved in Latin America during this period? This outside involvement was particularly notable in the two former centers of colonial power, Mexico and Peru. What shape did it take in each place? Briefly define or identify the following terms: Juan Manuel de Rosas â€Å"El Supremo† Caste War of Yucatan Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna The regency years â€Å"el pueblo† Rafael Carrera â€Å"La Nina† Central American Republic 4Chapter 6 – Progress (1850-1880) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What were some of the significant aspects of liberalism emphasized by the key Latin American liberals mentioned in this section (be as specific as possible)? Why did Maximilian fail to reinstate conservative rule in Mexico? Based on Chasteen’s examples, what seems to have been the most common way for women to become public figures during the nineteenth century (the few, that is, who did become public figures)? Give two examples. Liberals in Argentina agreed on the traditional tenets of Latin American liberalism. What issue divide d them?Compare the way Argentine and Brazilian liberals confronted what they considered the â€Å"national tragedy† of racially mixed societies. Do leaders in one of these countries seem to be less racist in their thinking than leaders of the other? Briefly explain the issues and significance of the following wars (and note the dates when each took place): The Triple Alliance War The War of the Pacific The Chaco War Briefly define or identify the following terms: Benito Juarez Birds Without a Nest (1889) â€Å"Golden Law† William Walker Ten Years War Domingo Faustino Sarmiento 6.Chapter 7 – Neocolonialism (1880-1930) 1. Describe the â€Å"great export boom† that marked Progress for Latin America between 1870-1930. What were its most important characteristics? Which crops or exports seemed most beneficial to Latin Americans and why? Which one seemed most harmful? Compare the governments of Mexico and Brazil during the neocolonial period: Based on this chap ter how do the ideas of neocolonialism and â€Å"importing Progress† relate to one another? Early in the chapter, Chasteen suggests that the concept of neocolonialism is both an internal and an external phenomenon.What does he mean, and, after reading the chapter, would you agree with that analysis? Describe the rise of U. S. influence in Latin America: Why did the South Cone region of Latin America attract the majority of the new immigrants? 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Briefly define or identify the following terms: â€Å"banana republics† Ruben Dario Porfiriato Cientificos Rebellion in the Backlands Paulina Luisi Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine Cesar Augusto Sandino Positivism Pan o palo Jose Marti Jose Enrique Rodo 5 Chapter 8 – Nationalism (1910-1945) 1. 2. 3. . 5. Based on the chapter, what were the most important aspects of nationalism in Latin America? Why did nationalism emerge in the early decades of the twentieth century? Compare and contrast nationalism in Mexico with that in Argentina and Uruguay and also with Brazil. Did nationalism in any one of these countries seem more thoroughgoing than in the others? Why? Why did import-substitution industrialization (ISI) provide greater benefits for countries such as Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina than for places like the Dominican Republic or Honduras?Why did the wave of nationalism seem to have very little impact on Central America? Briefly define or identify the following terms: Constitution of 1917 Pancho Villa Constitutionalists Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo Batllismo Hipolito Yrigoyen Victor Raul Haya de la Torre Indigenismo ISI Getulio Vargas Estado Novo Heitor Villa Lobos Lazaro Cardenas â€Å"Good Neighbor Policy† Mexico’s â€Å"declaration of economic independence† Populists Juan and Evita Peron Emiliano Zapata Chapter 9 – Revolution (1945-1960) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Why would Brasilia represent the â€Å"perfect symbol of the ost-Vargas moment in Brazil† and the PRI the perfect symbol for Mexico at the same time (252)? Chapter 8 talked about the popularity of Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor Policy. Why did relations between the U. S. and major Latin American countries begin to sour in the post-WWII years? Why did the U. S. tolerate the National Revolutionary Movement (MNR) in Bolivia while it actively supported a proxy force to oust Arbenz in Guatemala? Based on this textbook, would you say the Cuban revolution was more an expression of Marxism or of nationalism? Why? What were the goals of liberation theology?Briefly define or identify the following terms: Raul Prebish Jacobo Arbenz Che Guevara Bay of Pigs (1961) Declaration of Caracas (1954) Pablo Naruda Fulgencio Batista Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) Juan Jose Arevalo Jorge Luis Borges Granma Paulo Freire 6 Chapter 10 – Reaction (1960-1990) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. On what basis does Chasteen argue that the Soviet Union was not involved in Latin American Marxist movements outside of Cuba during the 1960s and 1970s? Why did rule by military juntas become widespread in Latin America by the mid-1970s?What did the Brazilian generals mean when they said that the cake had to rise before it could be sliced? Why didn’t the poor ever get their slice? How did the Argentine experience of military rule differ from that of Brazil? What were the most important factors that contributed to the overthrow of the Popular Unity government in Chile? In which countries of Latin America were â€Å"dirty wars† most intense and devastating? What were the main factors that fueled guerilla wars in Nicaragua and El Salvador? Why does Chasteen place Colombia in the â€Å"countercurrents† section at the end of the chapter?What was different about Colombia? Briefly define or identify the following terms: â€Å"national security doctrine† Alliance for Progress Gabriel Garcia Marquez Las Madres de la Plaza de Mayo Tupamaros Salvador Allende Augusto Pinoc het Tlatelolco massacre â€Å"dirty war† Somoza family Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) Contras Daniel Ortega Violeta Chamorro â€Å"fourteen families† Oscar Romero Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN) La Violencia Pablo Escobar and the Medillin Cartel M-19 U. S. School of the Americas Chapter 11 – Neoliberalism (1990- ? ) 1. 2. 3. 4.Why did neoliberalism become the popular political/economic ideology for Latin America during the 1990s? Compare neoliberalism with the liberalism with the liberal reforms that swept the region from 1870-1930—in what important ways are they similar? How do they differ? What insights does the Chilean success story provide into the strengths and weaknesses of neoliberalism? What are the primary environmental issues surrounding the Amazonian rain forest? Briefly define or identify the following terms: Neoliberalism MERCOSUR Zapatistas NAFTA Maquiladora Candomble, Umbanda, Santeria

What Was the Golden Horde

The Golden Horde was the group of settled Mongols who ruled over Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Moldova, and the Caucasus from the 1240s until 1502. The Golden Horde was established by Batu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan, and subsequently a part of the Mongol Empire before its inevitable fall.   The Golden Hordes name Altan Ordu, may have come from the yellow tents used by the rulers, but nobody is sure about the derivation. In any case, the word horde entered many European languages through Slavic Eastern Europe as a result of the Golden Hordes rule. Alternate names for the Golden Horde include the Kipchak Khanate and the Ulus of Jochi—who was the son of Genghis Khan and the father of Batu Khan. Origins of the Golden Horde When Genghis Khan lay dying in 1227 he divided his Empire into four fiefdoms to be ruled by the families of each of his four sons. However, his first son Jochi had died six months earlier, so the westernmost of the four khanates, in Russia and Kazakhstan, went to Jochis eldest son, Batu.   Once Batu had consolidated his power over the lands conquered by his grandfather, he gathered his armies and headed west to add further territories to the realm of the Golden Horde. In 1235 he conquered the Bashkirs, a western Turkic people from the Eurasian borderlands. The following year, he took Bulgaria, followed by southern Ukraine in 1237.  It took three years additional years, but in 1240 Batu conquered the principalities of Kievan Rus—now northern Ukraine and western Russia. Next, the Mongols set out to take Poland and Hungary, followed by Austria. However, events back in the Mongolian homeland soon interrupted this campaign of territorial expansion. In 1241, the second Great Khan, Ogedei Khan, suddenly died. Batu Khan had been busy besieging Vienna when he received the news; he broke the siege and began to march east to contest the succession. Along the way, he destroyed the Hungarian city of Pest and conquered Bulgaria. Succession Issues Although Batu Khan had begun to move toward Mongolia so that he could participate in the  kuriltai  that would select the next Great Khan, in 1242 he stopped. Despite polite invitations from some of the claimants to Genghis Khans throne, Batu pled old age and infirmity and refused to go to the meeting. He did not want to support the top candidate, wanting instead to play king-maker from afar. His refusal left the Mongols unable to select a top leader for several years. Finally, in 1246, Batu relented and delegated a younger brother as his representative. Meanwhile, within the lands of the Golden Horde, all the senior princes of the Rus swore fealty to Batu. Some of them were still executed, however, like Michael of Chernigov, who had killed a Mongol envoy six years previously. Incidentally, it was the deaths of other Mongol envoys in Bukhara that touched off the entire Mongol Conquests; the Mongols took diplomatic immunity very seriously indeed. Batu died in 1256, and the new Great Khan Mongke appointed his son Sartaq to lead the Golden Horde. Sartaq promptly died and was replaced by Batus younger brother Berke. The Kievans (somewhat unwisely) seized this opportunity to rebel while the Mongols were embroiled in succession issues. The Golden Age However, by 1259 the Golden Horde had put its organizational issues behind it and sent a force to offer an ultimatum to the rebellious leaders of cities such as Ponyzia and Volhynia. The Rus complied, pulling down their own city walls—they knew that if the Mongols had to take down the walls, the population would be slaughtered. With that clean-up accomplished, Berke sent his horsemen back into Europe, re-establishing his authority over Poland and Lithuania, forcing the king of Hungary to bow before him, and in 1260 also demanding submission from King Louis IX of France. Berkes attack on Prussia in 1259 and 1260 nearly destroyed the Teutonic Order, one of the organizations of German knightly Crusaders. For the Europeans who lived quietly under Mongol rule, this was the era of the Pax Mongolica. Improved trade and communications routes made the flow of goods and information easier than ever before. The Golden Hordes justice system made life less violent and dangerous than before in medieval Eastern Europe. The Mongols took regular census counts and required regular tax payments, but otherwise left the people to their own devices so long as they did not try to rebel. Mongol Civil War and Decline of the Golden Horde In 1262, Berke Khan of the Golden Horde came to blows with Hulagu Khan of the Ikhanate, which ruled over Persia and the Middle East. Berke was emboldened by Hulagus loss to the Mamluks at the Battle of Ain Jalut. At the same time, Kublai Khan and Ariq Boke of the Toluid line of the family were fighting back east over the Great Khanate. The various khanates survived this year of warfare and chaos, but the Mongol disunity on display would signal increasing problems for the descendants of Genghis Khan in the coming decades and centuries. Nonetheless, the Golden Horde ruled in relative peace and prosperity until 1340, playing different Slavic factions off of one another to divide and rule them. In 1340, a new wave of deadly invaders swept in from Asia. This time, it was fleas carrying the Black Death. The loss of so many producers and taxpayers hit the Golden Horde hard. By 1359, the Mongols had fallen back into dynastic squabbles, with as many as four separate claimants vying for the khanate simultaneously. Meanwhile, various Slavic and Tatar city-states and factions began to rise up again. By 1370, the situation was so chaotic that the Golden Horde lost contact with the home government in Mongolia. Timur (Tamerlane) dealt the tottering Golden Horde a crushing blow in 1395 through 1396, when he destroyed their army, looted their cities and appointed his own khan. The Golden Horde stumbled on until 1480, but it was never the great power it had been after Timurs invasion. In that year, Ivan III drove the Golden Horde from Moscow and established the nation of Russia. Remnants of the horde attacked the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland between 1487 and 1491 but were soundly thrashed. The final blow came in 1502 when the Crimean Khanate—with Ottoman patronage—sacked the Golden Hordes capital at Sarai. After 250 years, the Golden Horde of the Mongols was no more.

Extended School Year Services (ESY) for Students with Special Needs

ESY, or Extended School Year, is additional instructional support for students with disabilities, required by the Individuals with Disabilities Act. Why is ESY necessary? Some students with special needs are in jeopardy of not being able to retain the skills they have learned during the school year unless given additional support throughout the summer. Those students eligible for ESY will receive an individualized program to support their learning and retention of skill throughout the summer holidays. What does IDEA say about ESY? Under (34 CFR Part 300) in IDEA Regulations (not the Act): Extended school year services must be provided only if a childs IEP team determines, on an individual basis, in accordance with 300.340-300.350, that the services are necessary for the provision of FAPE to the child. The term extended school year services means special education and related services that—(1) Are provided to a child with a disability—(i) Beyond the normal school year of the public agency;(ii) In accordance with the childs IEP; and(iii) At no cost to the parents of the child; and(2) Meet the standards of the IDEA  Ã‚  (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) How can I determine if a child qualifies? The school, through the IEP team, will decide if the child will qualify for ESY Services. The decision will be based on a variety of factors which include: the childs rate of progressthe degree of impairmentthe childs behavioral and/or physical problemsavailability of resourcesthe vocational and transitional needs of the childthe childs ability to interact with non-disabled childrenand whether the service requested is extraordinary rather than usual in consideration of the childs condition. It is important to remember, the key to qualifying is the childs regression during school breaks, these should be well documented and records or any supporting data should be on hand for the team meeting. The school team will also take into consideration the childs previous history, in other words, did having summer holidays mean re-teaching skills again upon school startup? The school team will look at previous regression. It is important to note that most students dont retain all skills taught, hence a spiraling curriculum. The degree of regression must be relatively extreme to qualify for ESY Services. How much will I have to pay? There is no cost to the parent for ESY. The educational jurisdiction/district will cover the costs. However, not all students with disabilities will qualify. ESY services are provided only if the child meets certain criteria determined by law and the specific districts policy. What are some of the services provided?The services are individualized based on the students needs and will vary. They could include, physical therapy, behavioral support, instructional services, take home packages for parental implementation with consultative services, coaching, small group instruction just to name a few. ESY does not support the learning of new skills but the retention of those already taught. Districts will vary in their form of services offered. Where can I find more information about ESY? You will need to check with your own educational jurisdiction as some states vary in their standards regarding ESY. You will also want to read the section noted above in the IDEA regulations. Be sure to ask your district for a copy of their ESY guidelines. Note, that you should look into this service well in advance of any school break/holiday.

Marc Chagall s Over Vitebsk - 1215 Words

Jasmine Walthall Erik Day Art Appreciation 22 April 2015 Marc Chagall’s Over Vitebsk Most artist art work reflects the artist’s inner self, their feelings and thoughts about the world around them. Art is a way for artists to let whatever is in, out. It is also a way for them to show his or her inner thoughts and feelings about something to the rest of the world. Whether it be Upton Sinclair showing the world the nastiness of the meat packing industry and the struggles of the low class immigrants of America through his book The Jungle or how Taylor Swift express all of her heartbreak in every song she has recorded, art serves the purpose of conveying the artist’s thoughts and emotions. Marc Chagall’s painting is no different than any other artist. He is expressing his feelings through a work of art. Over Vitebsk gives us a look into his thoughts and inner most feelings. He expresses his thought and feeling about being Jewish and how Jewish people were treated in his society at this time period. His painting and better and holds more meaning then Taylor Swift but she was one of the first people to come to mind. His painting, Over Vitebsk, allows us, the viewers, to interpret and try to understand these thoughts and feelings, to attempt to see what he intended us to see, and allows us a glimpse into his inner self. Over Vitebsk concentrates on the subject matter of the Jewish community and how they were viewed in society. By painting the image of a floating Jewish man inShow MoreRelatedCase Study, Marc Chagall1973 Words   |  8 Pagesartist you have studied this year. Refer to work done by this artist to substantiate your statements. Marc Chagall was a Russian/French artist who was born into a poor family of Hassidic Jews on the 7th July 1887. Throughout his working life he was based in Russia from 1906-1910, then he moved to France for four more years before moving back to Russia and Soviet Belarus for eight years. Chagall was strongly influenced, but not limited to, movements such as Cubism, Fauvism and Surrealism. These movementsRead More Marc Chagall Essay1399 Words   |  6 PagesMarc Chagall Marc Chagall as an artist and as a person cannot be categorized. He was born in Vitebsk, Russia, learned to paint in St. Petersburg and lived in Paris, Berlin, and the United States. His career is influenced by many different factors. His Hasidic Jewish upbringing reflected in the content of his paintings greatly. The lyrical fairy tales of Jewish mysticism, the stories of the Bible, and the Rabbis and scholars who surrounded him in his childhood come out onto his work. When he went

Statement of Ethics Issue Free Essays

Oct 20 2012 Oct 20 2012 ACCT 3121 Instructor: Ms. Julie Chenier ACCT 3121 Instructor: Ms. Julie Chenier | Written Assignment| | Student: Yichen Chen| | Written Assignment| | Student: Yichen Chen| To: Manufacturing Manager From: Becky Knauer Date: Oct 20 2012 Subject: Action of Ethnic Issue for Mueller Imports Dear Officer, My name is Becky Knauer, the new controller in Mueller Imports. We will write a custom essay sample on Statement of Ethics Issue or any similar topic only for you Order Now Being selected as an experienced automotive professional to join such a huge management team, I aim at using my objective view and competency in addition to all available sources to best assist the organization. Recently, while managing the financial statement, I realized there are several transactions that are susceptible for ethical issue. A $5000 monthly invoice billed from the jeweler was personally approved as â€Å"selling expense† by the company’s owner Frank Mueller. My investigation exposes that the red flag involves significant fraud: 1. The periodic watch offering to regional sales managers and other sales exclusives indicates the bribery. By receiving expensive rewards from Mr. Mueller, sales exclusives give biased car distribution to dealers. 2. The invoice billed by a local jeweler reveals the probability of collusion. Because the watch seller does not bill the transaction as a regular sale but explained it as a â€Å"miscellaneous service†, the jeweler has the high incentive to set the underground agreement with Frank Mueller. I suspect the indirect service charge conceals this fact. 3. The false financial statements presented by Mr. Mueller reveal the misrepresentation. Mueller’s action violates the policy of segregation of duties by overriding his right to authorize the controllable cost. His statement of this expenditure â€Å"selling expense† overstates the expense and understates the net income as well. He indirectly gains comparative advantages from the transaction called into question. Frankly, in the supply shortage market, the substantial sale and high profit goal are pushing the upper level management into a dilemma. It seems that the fraud is initiated by the owner Frank Mueller, regional sales managers, and other involved exclusives, trying to gain personal interests by committing the fraud. Even though the outstanding sales can bring in large profits for Mueller Imports in the short term, the significant performance will be reevaluated and disclosed to the public. Consequently, all individuals within the organization and third parties committing to fraud will receive their deserved penalties. In addition, if Mueller Imports announces bankruptcy, employees who are innocent from the fraudulent activities will also suffer unemployment. According to Tom York (Segregation of Duties, 22), engaging in corrupt practices creates a very unfavorable business environment by encouraging unfair advantage and anti-competitive practices. As a controller within the company, I have the right to establish the monitoring plans for internal controls to ensure that funds are expended and recorded appropriately on the financial report (Controller Job Description, 10). Referring to the IMA’s Statement of Ethical Professional Practice, the issue should be discussed with the higher level of supervisor or management who is not involved in the issue. Since the fraud is committed by the the top level of the organization, it is inappropriate to submit the issue to any level within the organization. However, it is impractical to hands-off because the activity of committing to the fraud which violate the code of ethnic. If I do nothing, I will be drawn into the concealment of fact as well. As far as I am concerned, it is not wise to fight the unethical issue with the upper level management, nor do I want to build a hostile relationship with the people of Mueller Imports. The most viable actions are: 1. Gather enough potential fraudulent statements, 2. Take an investigation of sale managers’ life activities 3. Carefully evaluate the control system. After gathering substantial evidence, I would like to initiate a confidential discussion with you as well as the IMA ethnic advisors. In accordance with code of ethics (IMA Statement of Ethical professional Practice, Page 1), I will provide objective information and concerns to the appropriate business associates in the confidential manner. Following the guidance of the code of ethics, I want to utilize my professional skills supported by the appropriate authority to address the issue. Your responses and concerns will be very important to deal with the issue. I hope it can be solved in a professional manner resulting the in the car market returning to a fair and healthy state in the long run. I am looking forward to hearing from you. Sincerely, Becky Knauer Work Cited: Controller / Business Manager Job Description http://autocareersjobs. com/automotive-dealership-job-descriptions/controller-business-manager-job-description/ The Association for Accountant and Financial Professionals in Business, IMA Statement of Ethical Professional Practice, www. imanet. org York, Tom, Segregation of Duties, UNC Charlotte, internalaudit. uncc. edu/sites/internalaudit†¦ /SegregationofDuties. pdf How to cite Statement of Ethics Issue, Essay examples

Herman Melville A Biography And Analysis Essay Example For Students

Herman Melville: A Biography And Analysis Essay Herman Melville: A Biography And AnalysisThroughout American history, very few authors have earned the right tobe called great. Herman Melville is one of these few. His novels and poemshave been enjoyed world wide for over a century, and he has earned hisreputation as one of the finest American writers of all time. A man of toweringtalent, with intellectual and artistic brilliance, and a mind of deep insightinto human motives and behavior, it is certainly a disgrace that his truegreatness was not recognized until nearly a generation after his death. Born in the city of New York on August 1, 1819, Melville was the thirdchild and second son of Allan Melvill(it wasnt until Allans death in 1832 thatthe e at the end of Melville was added, in order to make a more obviousconnection with the Scottish Melville clan), a wholesale merchant and importerthen living in comfortable economic circumstances, and of Maria GansevoortMelvill, only daughter of the richest man in Albany, the respected andwealthy General Peter Gansevoort, hero of the defense of Fort Stanwix during theAmerican Revolution. In total, Allan and Maria had eight children. On his fathers side, his ancestry, though not so prosperous as on his mothers, was equallydistinguished. Major Thomas Melvill, his grandfather, was one of the Indiansin the Boston Tea Party during the events leading to the war and who had thenserved his country creditably throughout the hostilities. The Melvill familykept on their mantelpiece a bottle of tea drained out of Major Melvills clothesafter the Te a Party as a momento of this occasion. Herman attended the New York Male High School from about the age ofseven until 1830. By that time, Allan Melvills business had begun to fail, dueto his credit being overextended. After futile attempts to re-establish himself,he eventually found it necessary to accept the management of a New York furcompany back in Albany. The family moved there in the autumn of 1830, and duringthat time Herman attended, along with his brothers Gansevoort and Allan, theAlbany Academy. Just as luck seemed to again be favoring the Melvills, Allansbusiness affairs again suffered a setback. Excessive worry and overwork finallytook their toll upon his health. By January, 1832, he was both physically andmentally very ill. On January 28, 1832, Allan Melvill died. The shock of hisfathers financial collapse and his tragic death only slightly more than a yearlater took its toll on Hermans emotions. He was to draw upon this memory twodecades later in his writing of Pierre. In order to support the family, Herman took a position as an assistantclerk at a local bank, and his brothers Gansevoort and Allan took over theirlate fathers fur business. Possibly because of his mothers concern over hishealth, Herman left his position at the bank in the spring of 1834 and spent aseason working for his Uncle Thomass farm near Pittsfield. During the winter months of early 1835, Herman left Pittsfield andjoined his brothers in the fur business. Now fifteen and a half, he kept thebooks of the firm for the following two years. At some time during this periodhe enrolled as a student in the Albany Classical School. He also became ammember in the Albany Young Mens Association, a club for debating and reading,of which his brother was already a member. Such clubs, in absence of publiclibraries, were popular in many cities and served a most useful educationalpurpose. Within a year or two of education at the Albany Classical School, hehad become qualified as a school teacher. He left his brothers at the nowfailing fur company and became a teacher at a one-room schoolhouse outside ofPittsfiesd. On his first day of the new job, the inexperienced teacher wasconfronted with thirty students of all ages and levels of skill. Some were hisage, and a few utterly illiterate. In such extreme conditions Herman found ithard to maintain discipline, let alone teach. After six weeks, he gave up andreturned to Albany. For a few months, Herman looked for work without success. His leisurehours, though, were filled with excitement. Early in 1838 he organized adebating club and promptly got into a dispute over the presidency of the clubwith a rival member, which he eventually won. Before long, Maria Melvill was forced to admit that she could no longerafford to live in Albany. Faced with the prospect of having to constantly askher brother Peter for money, she finally decided to move her family toLansingburgh, a village not far from Albany near the Hudson River. Herman was in a difficult and unhappy position. Although he was almosttwenty years old, he was not contributing to the familys income and feltashamed. At the same time, he was unable to decide on a career or event settledown to a job. Perhaps because he remembered the stories of his uncle and twocousins who had gone to sea, Herman decided to try his own fate at sea. He askedhis brother Gansevoort to look for a ships berth for him, and almostimmediately, he was hired as a crewman aboard the St. Lawerence, a three mastedship that was preparing to cross the Atlantic from New York City to Liverpool,England. Shakespearean Comedies: Comparisions and Contrasts EssayMelville, eager to see the family he missed so, returned to Lansingburghwhere his mother still resided. His family was fascinated with his glorioustales of his journeys at sea; so much so that Hermans brother Thomas set sailhimself. Unfortunately, Herman was in the same situation in which he was beforethese adventures unemployed. He believed that if he put his stories on paper,he would find a publisher, and the vexing question of his career would beanswered he would become a writer. As he sat in his mothers house to write his first novel, Melvilleturned to the part of his South Seas adventure about which everyone was mostcurious: his stay among the cannibals. The story was his own, certainly, butin writing Typee, Melville established a habit that would follow throughout hiscareer. Hi used his own experiences as the skeleton of the book and fleshed outthe details with his own imagination. In Typee, he wrote about his escape from awhaling vessel with Toby, and renamed the ship the Dolly rather than theAcushnet. He also changed their departure, which in reality he was never in anyreal danger, to one of great heroics as they escaped from a horrible fate. Inaddition, he lengthened their stay on the island from four weeks to a gruelingfour months. He did find a publisher, and Typee, his first book, was publishedin 1846. The following year, Melville met and fell in love with a woman namedElizabeth Shaw, and they were married on August 4, 1847. They bought a home inNew York City, where they would remain for the rest of their lives. Togetherthey would have two sons, Malcolm and Stanwix, born in 1849 and 1851,respectively. Also born to them were two daughters, Elizabeth and Frances, in1853 and 1855. In 1851, the same year as the birth of his second son, Melville has hismost famous work published, Moby Dick, or, The Whale. Between the release ofTypee and Moby Dick, Melville wrote other books of lesser notoriety. Omoo (1847),a book about his stay in Tahiti; Mardi (1849), Redburn (1849), about his timespent in Liverpool, and White Jacket (1850). Moby Dick, as most people know, is the story of Captain Ahab and hisquest, which eventually becomes and obsessive monomania, to kill the great whitewhale Moby Dick. Today, Moby Dick is universally recognized as both Melvillescrowning achievement and a towering classic of American literature. The verything that bothered so many people when it was published the fact that itbroke the rules of writing and did so with such gusto is now seen as thesource of its power. Today, writers who mix genres or who create unique voicesand styles are admired. Thus Moby Dick is now regarded, not as a failed searomance or mixed up adventure story, but as a triumph of creative imagination,an example of how vast and all-embracing a book can be. Along with Mark TwainsHuckleberry Fin and Walt Whitmans Leaves of Grass, Moby Dick is considered acandidate for the greatest American novel. However, as aforementioned, hisgreatness was not recognized at this time. Melvilles later works, Pierre (1852), The Piazza Tales (1856), TheConfidence Man (1857), the poem Clarel (1876), and the post-mortumouslypublished Billy Bud (1924), went almost completely unnoticed until the early1920s, when a student of literature named Raymond Weaver approached theMelville family and was given permission to examine the papers Herman leftbehind in a tin box after his death. It was here Billy Bud was first discoveredand later published, which introduced a whole new generation to Melvilles work. Soon critics, students, and the general public were reading his novels andstories, and greeting some of them as masterpieces. In 1927, American novelistWilliam Faulkner declared that Moby Dick was the book he most wished he hadwritten. Knowing the quality of his work, one can not help but feel sympatheticto Melvilles passing. He died on September 28, 1891 in his home in New YorkCity, still unknown by the general public. If any writer deserved to berecognized and praised during their lives, Melville is that writer. Althoughunfortunate that his passing went almost unnoticed by the public, he is now andjustly so, an immortal in the annals of American literature, and his work willbe looked upon with both admiration and envy for many years to come. APPENDICESAny appendices should appear after the text of your term paper. BIBLIOGRAPHYUse the Bibliography TaskWizard to help you quickly and easilycreate a bibliography for your paper. Pick the same style as your footnotestyle.